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Randomisation by cluster: sample size into Practice cleocin gel 20gm online, 5 Implementing clinical guidelines: can guidelines be used to improve requirements and analysis buy generic cleocin gel 20 gm on line. Statistics Notes Time to event (survival) data Douglas G Altman cleocin gel 20 gm overnight delivery, J Martin Bland Correspondence to: In many medical studies an outcome of interest is the The distinguishing feature of survival data is that at Mr Altman time to an event generic 20 gm cleocin gel with mastercard. Such events may be adverse, such as the end of the follow up period the event will probably continued over death or recurrence of a tumour; positive, such as con- not have occurred for all patients. For these patients ception or discharge from hospital; or neutral, such as the survival time is said to be censored, indicating that BMJ 1998;317:468–9 cessation of breast feeding. It is conventional to talk the observation period was cut off before the event about survival data and survival analysis, regardless of occurred. Similar data also arise when the patient will experience the event, only that he or measuring the time to complete a task, such as walking she has not done so by the end of the observation 50 metres. Botulinum toxin A in the management of children Botulinum toxin treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Laryngeal dystonia (spasmodic 33 Maria G, Cassetta E, Gui D, Brisinda G, Bentivoglio AR, Albanese A. A dysphonia): observations of 901 patients and treatment with botulinum comparison of botulinum toxin and saline for the treatment of chronic toxin. Achalasia: outcome of patients treated with intrasphincteric injection 27 Tsui JKC,Bhatt M,Calne S,Calne DB. The occasion was the examina- affect the outcome favourably by enabling treatment to Practice,University of Queensland,The tion in general practice for fifth year medical students. With other causes such as minimal change University General We run an objective structured clinical examination. Australia blood pressure (the "patient" was actually someone I consulted my general practice colleague. His Chris Del Mar recruited from our general practice), test his urine approach was similar. He ensured that I had checked professor using a dipstick, and report to the examiner within the my urine microscopy and culture to establish whether c. He wondered whether my bicycle rid- ing might be the cause, and suggested I recheck the BMJ 2000;320:165–6 testing. Because I did not want to disturb the volunteer patient, I collected it from myself. If test results were still posi- patient’s blood pressure again (this had to be done tive, it looked as if the cascade of likely events would after every 10th student)—it was stable. And I tested the include ultrasonography, urine samples for malignant urine to check it was normal—it was not. I had time to think about not a problem as far as the examination was concerned adopting an evidence based approach. I tested Formulating the question my urine again a week later, and when I found it was still positive I sent a specimen to the laboratory. The report The most difficult part of adopting evidence in practice stated that urine culture was negative but confirmed the is formulating the question. The model that is the chance of having a serious condition with sprang to mind first is summarised in the table. Ideally, it would be huge study of general tuberculosis and schistosomiasis as causes of haema- turia. A textbook of medicine2 suggested further Causes and management of haematuria assessments, including checking my blood relatives for Site of bleeding Disease Management urine abnormality and carrying out haemoglobin elec- Generalised Bleeding diathesis Check bleeding and coagulation profiles; trophoresis and 24 hour urinary estimations of urate treat accordingly and calcium excretion. If all these investigations were Lower renal tract Prostate hypertrophy or cancer; Cystoscopy; treat accordingly negative, intravenous urography, cystoscopy, and renal urethral inflammation; bladder lesion computed tomography were proposed, with indefinite or cancer Ureteric lesions Transitional cell carcinoma; ureteric Ultrasonography or intravenous regular follow up thereafter. The essential feature of calculi urography; treat accordingly this model is that identifying the lesion anatomically or Renal lesions Cancer; calculi; vascular abnormalities; Check blood pressure; ultrasonography physiologically is the key to managing the problem.
Can compromise the validity of a meta-analysis; significant heterogeneity indicates decreased likelihood that chance alone is responsible for any observed differences in treatment effects between studies cheap cleocin gel 20 gm without prescription. Internal validity How well results fit the population in which the model was generated cleocin gel 20 gm on-line. Meta-analysis Quantitative review of systematically chosen literature generic cleocin gel 20 gm without prescription, the hallmark of which is statistical synthesis of the numerical outcomes of several trials that all asked the same question cleocin gel 20 gm cheap. Multicenter A clinical trial conducted at more than one site, but following the same protocol at all locations. Placebo-controlled (PC) A trial in which the effectiveness of the drug is compared to that of a placebo. Prospective cohort study An observational study that follows a large group (a cohort) of people forward in time Randomized controlled trial (RCT) Experiment in which individual are randomly allocated to receive or not receive an experimental preventative, therapeutic, or diagnostic procedure and then followed to determine the effect of the intervention. Systematic review Explicit, structured presentation of results of an unbiased literature review, using predetermined search and appraisal definitions. Terms relevant to study results Absolute risk reduction (ARR) The difference between the control event rate (CER) and the experimental treatment event rate (EER). ARR = CER - EER 95% confidence interval (CI) An estimate of the precision of a measurement by determining, with 95% accuracy, that the measurement includes the "true" value for the population. The broader the CI range, the more uncertain is the true value of the measurement; CIs that cross zero do not reach clinical significance. Experimental event rate (EER) Rate of the outcome in the experimental treatment group. Intention-to-treat (ITT) Results that include every individual originally randomized, regardless of whether or not they completed the trial. Likelihood ratio (LR) Positive LR = probability of an abnormal diagnostic or screening test result (including clinical signs or symptoms) in patients with the disorder of interest compared to the probability of the abnormal result in patients without the disorder (Sn/1 - Sp). Negative LR = probability of a normal diagnostic or screening test result (including clinical signs or symptoms) in patients without the disorder of interest compared to the probability of a normal result in patients with the disorder (Sp/1 - Sn). Negative predictive value The proportion of patients testing negative for the disorder who are actually disease free, of all the patients testing negative. Number needed to treat (NNT) The number of patients who must be treated with this intervention (rather than the control) over a specified time period to prevent one additional bad outcome. NNT = 1/ARR (as a decimal) Number needed to harm (NNH) The number of patients who would need to be treated over a specific time period before one adverse side effect of the treatment will occur. Odds ratio (OR) The odds of an experimental patient suffering an adverse event relative to a control patient. Per protocol analysis Results that do not take into account all persons originally randomized, only those participants who followed the study protocol. Positive predictive value The proportion of patients testing positive for the disorder who actually have the disease, of all the patients testing positive. Relative risk reduction (RRR) Percent reduction in "bad" outcome events in the experimentally treated groups relative to the control groups. RRR = (CER - EER) / CER * 100 Sensitivity (Sn) The proportion of diseased patients actually testing positive for the disorder, of all the diseased patients. SnNout: When a test has a high Sensitivity, a Negative test rules OUT the diagnosis. Specificity (Sp) The proportion of disease-free patients actually testing negative for the disorder, of all the disease- free patients. SpPin: When a test has a high Specificity, a Positive result rules IN the diagnosis. With increasing age, fewer patients need to be treated to obtain benefit, which is not surprising because the prevalence of death and cardiovascular events resulting from hyper- tension increases with age. In general, older adults have a similar decrease in relative risk and the same or a smaller NNT than middle-aged or younger adults, partic- ularly when risks of treatment are small. Benefits are almost always greatest Age-related differences in disease pathophysiology or in in the population most likely to experience the bad the multifactorial nature of a condition can decrease outcome that the treatment is intended to avoid or treatment efficacy.
Another comprehensive care model that uses an These programs adopt the assessment and intervention interdisciplinary team of health professionals is the Co- approach of CGA order cleocin gel 20gm with visa, frequently using an interdisciplinary operative Health Care Clinics developed at Kaiser- team generic 20gm cleocin gel mastercard. The prototype condition has been congestive heart Permanente cheap 20gm cleocin gel mastercard, Colorado discount cleocin gel 20gm with visa, and widely replicated elsewhere. A multidisciplinary program (geriatrics car- This model of care focuses on older persons who have at diologist, nurse, dietitian, and social worker) for elderly least one of four chronic conditions (heart, lung, or joint patients with heart failure who were at risk for readmis- disease, or diabetes) and high outpatient utilization. At the end of these 90-min sessions, 30 min are set prehensive discharge planning and home follow-up has aside for brief one-on-one visits with the physician, if been developed and tested. In a randomized clinical trial, such care was criteria, a program of comprehensive discharge planning associated with increased visits and calls to nurses but (including multidimensional assessment), and home fewer emergency room and subspecialist visits and fewer follow-up with advanced practice nurses who visited the hospitalizations. Although there were no differences patients at least every other day during the hospitaliza- in health and functional status measures, participants tion and at least twice during the 4 weeks following dis- were more satisfied with their care and the overall costs charge; these visits were supplemented by telephone of care were less. In a randomized clinical trial, this intervention was associated with reduced hospital readmissions and costs (both reduced by approximately 50%). In-Hospital Settings Several interventions have incorporated CGA principles Case/Care Management into hospital care of older persons. Acute care of the elderly (ACE) units have been developed and widely Case management has been defined as a process designed replicated. The care of elderly patients in these units to allocate services appropriately and organize them effi- focuses on environmental changes, patient-centered care, ciently. The initial into fee-for service Medicare where it has traditionally randomized clinical trial of these units demonstrated been excluded as a benefit. However, the practice of their effectiveness in reducing functional decline and dis- case management varies considerably in terms of types charge to nursing homes among unselected older hospi- of health care professionals and their responsibilities. Similar to CGA, case management vir- tify hospitalized older persons who are at risk for func- tually always begins with some method of screening to tional and cognitive decline and intervene regardless identify high-risk older persons (case selection). Following intervention includes geriatric assessment and interdis- identification, the roles of case managers differ, though ciplinary involvement as needed, as well as specific inter- components frequently including problem identification, ventions to address the multiple dimensions of geriatric planning, coordinating or implementation, monitoring, syndromes. Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment and Systems Approaches to Geriatric Care 201 work, there is considerable variation especially with implement in independent provider models despite the respect to caseload, how services are provided (e. Logistic and reimbursement face to face versus on the telephone), assessment, and difficulties usually preclude such innovation. In to be guided by the following principles: randomized clinical trials and pre–post studies, case man- • Comprehensive provision of preventive services agement has had variable success in providing health or (including lifestyle modification) and basic and functional status benefits or reducing costs. In an Italian episodic care for older persons who have few health study of persons who were already receiving conven- care needs. These services will likely be provided as tional home health services, case management in con- inexpensively as possible, using community educa- junction with a geriatric evaluation unit resulted in tional and preventive care resources and trained health improved physical function, less cognitive decline, and 31,32 care providers who are mostly not physicians. Another trial of nurse case managers assigned to frail • Systematic identification of older persons who have older persons discharged from a hospital emergency more extensive health care needs and design of department failed to demonstrate health or economic systems to meet such needs on an ongoing basis. Such benefits and resulted in higher readmission rates to 34 care is likely to be best provided by teams of health emergency departments. A social work model of case care providers, but such teams must reflect more effi- management for health maintenance organization enrol- cient care rather than simply more care. Communica- lees at high risk of using health care services heavily tion among teams will be increasingly electronic. The Future Nurses will be increasingly responsible for care man- agement and continuity for older persons who have The place of traditional comprehensive geriatric assess- chronic illnesses. Although some programs remain, usually at aca- Such changes will not come easily; they reflect departures demic health centers, the expense and logistics of such from the traditional health care delivery system, and programs preclude their widespread proliferation. As programs may be largely confined to teaching settings noted by the Institute for the Future, "There has been where they provide excellent environments for teaching little real change in the way physicians practice medicine geriatrics and team care. Even in times of economic prosper- programs will need to be efficient yet comprehensive.