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This means that although the experimenters know the research hypotheses 5mg hytrin mastercard, they do not know which conditions the participants are assigned to purchase 1 mg hytrin with amex. In a double-blind experiment purchase hytrin 1 mg visa, both the researcher and the research participants are blind to condition discount hytrin 1 mg online. For instance, in a double-blind trial of a drug, the researcher does not know whether the drug being given is the real drug or the Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. Double-blind experiments eliminate the potential for experimenter effects and at the same time eliminate participant expectancy effects. While internal validity refers to conclusions drawn about events that occurred within the experiment, external validity refers to the extent to which the results of a research design can be generalized beyond the specific way the original experiment was conducted. Generalization refers to the extent to which relationships among conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a wide variety of people and a wide variety of manipulated or measured variables. Psychologists who use college students as participants in their research may be concerned about generalization, wondering if their research will generalize to people who are not college students. And researchers who study the behaviors of employees in one company may wonder whether the same findings would translate to other companies. Whenever there is reason to suspect that a result found for one sample of participants would not hold up for another sample, then research may be conducted with these other populations to test for generalization. Recently, many psychologists have been interested in testing hypotheses about the extent to [5] which a result will replicate across people from different cultures (Heine, 2010). For instance, a researcher might test whether the effects on aggression of viewing violent video games are the same for Japanese children as they are for American children by showing violent and nonviolent films to a sample of both Japanese and American schoolchildren. If the results are the same in both cultures, then we say that the results have generalized, but if they are different, then we have learned a limiting condition of the effect (see Figure 2. If they are not replicated in the new culture, then a limiting condition of the original results is found. Because the investigator can never demonstrate that the research results generalize to all populations, it is not expected that the researcher will attempt to do so. Rather, the burden of proof rests on those who claim that a result will not generalize. Because any single test of a research hypothesis will always be limited in terms of what it can show, important advances in science are never the result of a single research project. Advances occur through the accumulation of knowledge that comes from many different tests of the same theory or research hypothesis. These tests are conducted by different researchers using different research designs, participants, and operationalizations of the independent and dependent variables. The process of repeating previous research, which forms the basis of all scientific inquiry, is known as replication. Scientists often use a procedure known as meta-analysis to summarize replications of research findings. A meta-analysis is a statistical technique that uses the results of existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions about those studies. Because meta-analyses provide so much information, they are very popular and useful ways of summarizing research literature. A meta-analysis provides a relatively objective method of reviewing research findings because it (1) specifies inclusion criteria that indicate exactly which studies will or will not be included in the analysis, (2) systematically searches for all studies that meet the inclusion criteria, and (3) provides an objective measure of the strength of observed relationships. Frequently, the researchers also include—if they can find them—studies that have not been published in journals. Psychology in Everyday Life: Critically Evaluating the Validity of Websites The validity of research reports published in scientific journals is likely to be high because the hypotheses, methods, results, and conclusions of the research have been rigorously evaluated by other scientists, through peer review, Attributed to Charles Stangor Saylor. For this reason, you will want to use peer-reviewed journal articles as your major source of information about psychological research. Although research articles are the gold standard for validity, you may also need and desire to get at least some information from other sources. The Internet is a vast source of information from which you can learn about almost anything, including psychology. Although you will naturally use the web to help you find information about fields such as psychology, you must also realize that it is important to carefully evaluate the validity of the information you get from the web.
Even though there may be voluntary consent 1mg hytrin sale, a written discount 1 mg hytrin amex, signed consent by the subject is strongly advised generic hytrin 2 mg line. Te subject may be a victim who bit a perpetrator of a crime or a suspected biter in a crime discount hytrin 2mg online, usually a rape, assault, or homicide. It is extremely important that the investigators, police, prosecutors, or crime scene technicians know in advance of the potential of a person changing his or her teeth if made aware that there is a possibility that teeth can be associated to a bitemark. Consequently, the subject (suspected biter) should be “kept in the dark” until such time as steps to legally collect dental information have been satisfed. A suspect in a violent crime, especially in a homicide, will not be inclined to give dental evidence voluntarily. Te legal process begins with probable cause, and here the dental profle of the biter from the bitemark or bite wound may assist police, pros- ecutors, and judges to satisfy the legal requirement to obtain a warrant or court order to obtain the dental evidence. A search warrant is most ofen used for the search of the physical prop- erty of a suspect, such as his house, car, or computer, but can also be used to obtain dental evidence in a bitemark case. A search warrant has certain advantages over the court order to obtain dental evidence. With a search warrant the suspect and his or her defense attorneys are not necessarily made Bitemarks 343 aware of the evidence collection in advance. Also, during examination based upon a search warrant of the body of the suspect, the defense counsel will not be present. Te police and prosecutor will draw up the warrant and present it to the judge for his signature. Te warrant will outline the details of the crime and the areas of probable cause, circumstantial or otherwise, that may link the suspect to the crime. Te execution of the warrant usually takes place at a location that has a medical or dental facility, but may be done at any location the authorities deem appropriate. He may refuse to open his mouth, object to the taking of biological samples, and resist being photographed. It must contain language that will allow the taking of the required evidence with the use of “reasonable force. Despite the efectiveness of search warrants, the majority of bitemark evidence is obtained following the issuance of a court order. Te court order stipulates the collection of the same evidence as the search warrant. Probable cause is necessary for the prosecutor to obtain a court order from the judge. Te defense attorney, may, if he chooses, be in attendance when the records are obtained and advise his client not to answer any questions other than exactly what is spelled out in the order. Te order should contain the name of the defendant and the date, time, and place that the evidence will be collected in general terms. It should name the forensic odontologist who is to obtain the evidence and spell out in general terms the items to be taken. Tese should include the dental history and oral exami- nation, photographs, impressions, bite registrations, and where applicable, any other biological evidence the state may request. Saliva, blood, hair, and urine are taken by a lab technician or physician’s assistant. It is important that the document includes the statement that “reasonable force” can be used to obtain the necessary evidence. If omitted from the warrant or court order, the defendant can refuse and cannot be forced to submit. If he is already in jail the order will usually be reissued with the appropriate language. A recommended protocol when obtaining records pursuant to a court order or search warrant is to document the identity of all persons present, photograph the defendant with orientation images that picture him from head to toe, and include images that show his full face as well as his teeth. A log should be kept of the evidence and retained with the other evidence in your possession through- out the analysis process and eventual court presentation. Te documentation of custody and recording of what, when, and who had possession of the evidence 344 Forensic dentistry is referred to as the chain of custody.
This accessible text is: ■ Comprehensive: it covers all the key aspects of intensive care nursing order 5 mg hytrin with visa. Jane Roe is a Lecturer-Practitioner at St George’s Hospital Medical School and Kingston University buy hytrin 2 mg without prescription, St George’s Hospital Intensive Therapy Unit purchase 5mg hytrin mastercard. What the reviewers said: ‘An informed buy hytrin 1 mg otc, well written and clinically focused text that has ably drawn together the central themes of intensive care course curricula and will therefore be around for many years…. Revision activities and clinical scenarios should encourage students to learn as they engage in analysing and reflecting on their everyday practice experiences. More experienced nurses will also find it a valuable reference source as a means of refreshing their ideas or in developing practice. It should find a place on the shelves of intensive care units, as well as in Higher Education institutions providing critical care courses. It will also be a welcome source of reference for nurses caring for critically ill patients outside of the intensive care unit. Woodrow provides a balance between pathophysiology oriented aspects of nursing practice and the relationship between patient/family and nurses that is the very essence of intensive care nursing. The text is helpfully punctuated with activities for the reader, whilst the extensive references also enable the reader to pursue specific aspects in greater depth. Main text © 2000 Philip Woodrow Clinical scenarios © 2000 Jane Roe Chapter 13 © 2000 Fidelma Murphy All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Woodrow, Philip, 1957– Intensive care nursing: a framework for practice/Philip Woodrow; clinical scenarios by Jane Roe. Intensive care nursing is a diverse speciality, and a text covering its every possible aspect would neither be affordable nor manageable to most clinical staff. This text, therefore, is necessarily selective, and will probably be most useful about 6 to 12 months into intensive care nursing careers. It assumes that readers are already qualified nurses, with experience of caring for ventilated patients, who wish to develop their knowledge and practice further. Knowledge develops and changes; controversy can, and should, surround most issues. But every aspect of knowledge and practice should be actively questioned and constantly reassessed. If this book encourages further debate among practising nurses it will have achieved its main purpose. Since a novice (Benner 1984) has little knowledge or experience, ‘basic’ nursing texts tend to explain almost everything. This book is for competent and advanced practitioners, however, whose knowledge and experience will vary. To help readers, ‘fundamental knowledge’ is listed at the start of many chapters, so that readers can pursue anything they are unsure about. Much ‘fundamental knowledge’ is related anatomy and physiology, and it would be a disservice to readers to displace other material for superficial summaries when there are many excellent anatomy and physiology texts available. Any book is necessarily a pragmatic balance between the author’s priorities and interests; this book represents mine. Many more topics could be covered (some were removed during writing), but this is not fundamentally a book about pathophysiology and the cost of comprehensiveness would be the book remaining largely unused and unread. Any stage of professional development is a beginning rather than an end; to help readers develop further, each chapter concludes with ‘further reading’, which is generally restricted to recent and easily accessible books and articles. A few classic key texts are also included in the further reading sections and, where the original year of publication provides a historical context for material, I have included this with the year of the edition consulted (for example, Nightingale 1980 [1859]). The large numbers of specialist, general nursing and other medical journals means that new material is frequently appearing and readers should pursue current material through their libraries. The clinical scenarios by Jane Roe provide an opportunity for nurses to apply the knowledge acquired in each chapter to a clinical situation. The glossary explains technical terms that are likely to cause problems and the first occurrence of these have been highlighted in the text. Few laws of physics or medical formulae are included unless frequently used in clinical nursing practice. Many chapters identify issues surrounding families; this implicitly includes friends and all other significant visitors.