By E. Trompok. Delta College. 2018.
As brain compression increases cheap 1 mg arimidex fast delivery, respirations become rapid order arimidex 1 mg, the blood pressure may decrease order arimidex 1 mg overnight delivery, and the pulse slows further discount arimidex 1mg free shipping. This is an ominous development, as is a rapid fluctuation of vital signs (Hickey, 2003). A rapid increase in body temperature is regarded as unfavorable because hyperthermia increases the metabolic demands of the brain and may indicate brain stem damage, a poor prognostic sign. Tachycardia and arterial hypotension may indicate that bleeding is occurring elsewhere in the body. Motor Function Motor function is assessed frequently by observing spontaneous movements, asking the patient to raise and lower the extremities, and comparing the strength and equality of the upper and lower extremities at periodic intervals. The presence or absence of spontaneous movement of each extremity is also noted, and speech and eye signs are assessed. If the patient does not demonstrate spontaneous movement, responses to painful stimuli are assessed (Haymore, 2004). Peripheral stimulation may provide inaccurate assessment data because it may result in a reflex movement rather than a voluntary motor response. Abnormal responses (lack of motor response; extension responses) are associated with a poorer prognosis. A unilaterally dilated and poorly responding pupil may indicate a developing hematoma, with subsequent pressure on the third cranial nerve due to shifting of the brain. If both pupils become fixed and dilated, this indicates overwhelming injury and intrinsic damage to the upper brain stem and is a poor prognostic sign (Arbour, 2004; Hickey, 2003). The patient with a head injury may develop deficits such as anosmia (lack of sense of smell), eye movement abnormalities, aphasia, memory deficits, and posttraumatic seizures or epilepsy. Patients may be left with residual psychological deficits (impulsiveness, emotional lability, or uninhibited, aggressive behaviors) and, as a consequence of the impairment, may lack insight into their emotional responses. Maintaining the Airway One of the most important nursing goals in the management of head injury is to establish and maintain an adequate airway. The brain is extremely sensitive to hypoxia, and a neurologic deficit can worsen if the patient is hypoxic. Therapy is directed toward 410 maintaining optimal oxygenation to preserve cerebral function. Interventions to ensure an adequate exchange of air are discussed in Chapter 61 and include the following: Maintain the unconscious patient in a position that facilitates drainage of oral secretions, with the head of the bed elevated about 30 degrees to decrease intracranial venous pressure (Fan, 2004). The goal is to keep blood gas values within the normal range to ensure adequate cerebral blood flow. Monitoring Fluid and Electrolyte Balance Brain damage can produce metabolic and hormonal dysfunctions. Serial studies of blood and urine electrolytes and osmolality are carried out, because head injuries may be accompanied by disorders of sodium regulation. Hyponatremia is common after head injury due to shifts in extracellular fluid, electrolytes, and volume. Hyperglycemia, for example, can cause an increase in extracellular fluid that lowers sodium (Hickey, 2003). Hypernatremia may also occur as a result of sodium retention that may last several days, followed by sodium diuresis. Endocrine function is evaluated by monitoring serum electrolytes, blood glucose values, and intake and output. A record of daily weights is maintained, especially if the patient has hypothalamic involvement and is at risk for the development of diabetes insipidus. Promoting Adequate Nutrition Head injury results in metabolic changes that increase calorie consumption and nitrogen excretion. Early initiation of nutritional therapy has been shown to improve outcomes in patients with head injury. Parenteral nutrition via a central line or enteral feedings administered via a nasogastric or nasojejunal feeding tube should be started within 48 hours after admission (Bader, Littlejohns & March, 2003). Laboratory values should be monitored closely in patients receiving parenteral nutrition.
The development of hypotension associated with a stress test is an ominous sign and highly suggestive of left main or critical triple vessel disease discount 1 mg arimidex otc. This can be improved to approxi- mately 90% by combining the stress test with radionuclear imaging order arimidex 1mg visa, where myocardial perfusion and metabolic function are evaluated at rest and exercise (an exercise stress thallium study) buy arimidex 1 mg with visa. The presence of a positive stress test or continued high suspicion for coronary artery disease even after a negative stress test usually 298 A purchase 1mg arimidex free shipping. All patients in whom ischemic heart disease is suspected ultimately undergo this test to determine the pres- ence or absence of coronary artery or valvular heart disease. Therapeutic Intervention and Results Ischemic Heart Disease At the present time, there are three classifications of therapy available to patients with ischemic heart disease. These are referred to as medical therapy, percutaneous angioplasty, and coronary bypass surgery. Decisions regarding treatment must be individualized and based on symptoms, anatomy, and risks of the selected therapy. The classic approach to medical therapy for ischemic heart disease is a three-pronged approach to decrease oxygen demand by the heart and includes beta-blockers, nitrates, and calcium channel blockers. As noted earlier, the prime cause of angina pectoris is the mismatch of oxygen demand and oxygen supply to the heart. Oxygen demand of the heart is determined by three major factors: (1) heart rate; (2) wall tension; and (3) to a lesser extent, the level of contractility of the heart. Wall tension is determined by Laplace’s law of the heart, in which wall tension is directly related to pressure and volume and inversely related to the wall thickness of the chamber involved: T = P ¥ R/2h where T is the wall tension, P is the chamber pressure, R is the chamber radius, and h is the wall thickness. The goal of their use is first to minimize increases in heart rate due to response to physical and emotional demands and second to decrease myocardial contractility. Nitrates decrease the preload through venous dilatation and relaxation of the capacitance vessels. Sublingual nitroglycerin, nitroglycerin paste, and other longer acting nitrates are included in this category. Calcium channel blockers provide afterload reduction (and thus, decreased wall tension) by relaxing the smooth muscle of peripheral vessels and pre- venting coronary spasm. In theory, only after a patient fails to respond to the simultaneous use of all three modes of therapy at maximal tolerated doses is a patient considered to have “failed medical therapy. Using techniques similar to cardiac catheterization, a guidewire is directed across and through the coro- nary lesion under fluoroscopic control. The balloon is inflated, compressing the lesion against the walls of the vessel, or an atherectomy is performed with actual removal of mater- ial from the wall of the vessel. The advantage of these procedures (when they are appropriate) is that the patient suffers little in the way of disability and the hospital- ization usually is quite short. In these situations, the surgical results are not as good as for elective surgery; perioperative myocar- dial infarction and mortalities both are higher. Recently, intracoronary stents made of fine metal mesh have been developed, and, based on limited results to date, seem to increase the likelihood of longer patencies following angioplasty as well as to lower the risk for emer- gency surgery at the time of the procedure. Irradiated and drug- eluding stents are now being tested and seem to prolong the patency even further. Certain anatomic situations (left main disease, left main equivalent, and three-vessel disease with decreased ven- tricular function) may warrant surgery even in the absence of symp- toms because of the large amount of myocardium in jeopardy and the recognized high mortality risk without treatment (including sudden death). All patients with these conditions are likely to benefit from surgery either with relief of symptoms, prevention of myocar- dial infarction, or prolongation of life. Guidelines for coronary artery bypass surgery, executive summary and recommendations. Spotnitz going surgery for complications of myocardial infarction (acute mitral regurgitation, ventricular septal defect, or free rupture of the heart) or for patients undergoing elective valve replacement procedures with critical vessel occlusions. Patients with limited life expectancy from other diseases (especially malignancies), the very elderly, or the physically impaired might not be considered surgical candidates based on asso- ciated physical conditions.
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