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The superior articular processes face upward and are deeply curved for articulation with the occipital condyles on the base of the skull cheap rumalaya gel 30gr visa. The inferior articular processes are flat and face downward to join with the superior articular processes of the C2 vertebra discount rumalaya gel 30gr without a prescription. The second cervical (C2) vertebra is called the axis rumalaya gel 30 gr with visa, because it serves as the axis for rotation when turning the head toward the right or left generic rumalaya gel 30gr otc. The axis resembles typical cervical vertebrae in most respects, but is easily distinguished by the dens (odontoid process), a bony projection that extends upward from the vertebral body. The dens joins with the inner aspect of the anterior arch of the atlas, where it is held in place by transverse ligament. The axis (C2 vertebra) has the upward projecting dens, which articulates with the anterior arch of the atlas. Thoracic Vertebrae The bodies of the thoracic vertebrae are larger than those of cervical vertebrae (Figure 7. The characteristic feature for a typical midthoracic vertebra is the spinous process, which is long and has a pronounced downward angle that causes it to overlap the next inferior vertebra. The superior articular processes of thoracic vertebrae face anteriorly and the inferior processes face posteriorly. These orientations are important determinants for the type and range of movements available to the thoracic region of the vertebral column. Thoracic vertebrae have several additional articulation sites, each of which is called a facet, where a rib is attached. Most thoracic vertebrae have two facets located on the lateral sides of the body, each of which is called a costal facet (costal = “rib”). It also has articulation sites (facets) on the vertebral body and a transverse process for rib attachment. Lumbar Vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae carry the greatest amount of body weight and are thus characterized by the large size and thickness of the vertebral body (Figure 7. The articular processes are large, with the superior process facing backward and the inferior facing forward. Sacrum and Coccyx The sacrum is a triangular-shaped bone that is thick and wide across its superior base where it is weight bearing and then tapers down to an inferior, non-weight bearing apex (Figure 7. It is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae, a process that does not begin until after the age of 20. On the anterior surface of the older adult sacrum, the lines of vertebral fusion can be seen as four transverse ridges. On the posterior surface, running down the midline, is the median sacral crest, a bumpy ridge that is the remnant of the fused spinous processes (median = “midline”; while medial = “toward, but not necessarily at, the midline”). Lateral to this is the roughened auricular surface, which joins with the ilium portion of the hipbone to form the immobile sacroiliac joints of the pelvis. Passing inferiorly through the sacrum is a bony tunnel called the sacral canal, which terminates at the sacral hiatus near the inferior tip of the sacrum. The anterior and posterior surfaces of the sacrum have a series of paired openings called sacral foramina (singular = foramen) that connect to the sacral canal. Each of these openings is called a posterior (dorsal) sacral foramen or anterior (ventral) sacral foramen. These openings allow for the anterior and posterior branches of the sacral spinal nerves to exit the sacrum. The superior articular process of the sacrum, one of which is found on either side of the superior opening of the sacral canal, articulates with the inferior articular processes from the L5 vertebra. The coccyx, or tailbone, is derived from the fusion of four very small coccygeal vertebrae (see Figure 7. The fused spinous processes form the median sacral crest, while the lateral sacral crest arises from the fused transverse processes. Intervertebral Discs and Ligaments of the Vertebral Column The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are strongly anchored to each other by an intervertebral disc. This structure provides padding between the bones during weight bearing, and because it can change shape, also allows for movement between the vertebrae.
In the test procedure rumalaya gel 30 gr without prescription, the sample (that is suspected for having a particular toxic chemical) will react with a chemical or chemicals set as a solution generic 30gr rumalaya gel fast delivery, or coated on a strip & the result of the reaction expressed by a color formation detected visually or colorometrically rumalaya gel 30 gr. Spot tests are available for a number of compounds discount rumalaya gel 30 gr online, including salicylate, acetaminophen, carbonmonoxide, halogenated hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. The tests are rapid and convenient; however sensitivity and specificity are generally poor and accurate quantification is virtually impossible. Because of improvements in other technologies, spot tests are now largely replaced by rapid immuno- assays that may perform at the point- of-care or in the central laboratories. Ultraviolet & visible spectrophotometry Many toxins have characteristic absorption spectra, but they must be extracted from body fluids in order to measure these spectra. The major problem encountered with this technique is interference, and some form of sample purification, such as solvent extraction or microdiffusion, is usually employed. Immunoassays Immunoassays are diagnostic techniques used for the detection of antigen and antibody. Depending on the immunoassay techniques that are employed for the specific test, either antigen or antibody may be detected from the samples based on their reaction with their specific antibody or antigen respectively. Those not involving radioactivity or separation steps (homogeneous immunoassays) can be automated on routine clinical chemistry instruments, making them convenient for laboratories of all sizes. Immunoassays can be made highly sensitive and quite specific, but their specificity is never absolute. Molecules with a similar structure generally cross-react to some degree, and occasionally substances interfere with the assay in some other fashion. Immunoassays also have the drawback that each analyte must be individually assayed using an available antibody reagent. Nevertheless, some of the more modern, discrete analyzers can readily perform multiple homogenous immunoassays with minimal operator intervention, so a panel of commonly abused drugs (e. These tests are known as drug dipsticks; and they utilize paper strips impregnated with drug-specific antibody. Chromatography Chromatography is a powerful technique for separating substances based on slight differences in chemical properties. In this method, components to be separated are distributed between two phases; as stationary and mobile phases. Chromatographic procedure involve a sample to be introduced in a flowing stream of gas or liquid (mobile phase) that pass through a bed, layer, or column containing a stationary phase (made from solid, or gel or a liquid). As the mobile phase carries the sample pass the stationary phase, the solutes with lesser affinity remain in the mobile phase & travel faster & separate from those that have great affinity for it. Different chemicals have different characteristic mobility in a particular chromatographic system, allowing fairly confident identification. It does not require special equipment, is suitable for analysis of 46 Toxicology large batches of samples, is available in commercial kit form, and allows use of various color reagents in addition to chromatographic mobilities to aid in chemical identification. Detection is usually by ultraviolet spectrophotometry, which in its most sophisticated form permits spectral scanning of each eluting peak to aid in identification. Mass spectrometry is an analytical instrument that first ionizes a target molecule and then separates and measures the mass of a molecule or its fragment. The analysis is qualitative, quantitative & extremely useful for determining the elemental composition & structure of both inorganic & organic compounds. Atomic absorption, plasma emission, neutron activation, and x-ray fluorescence Toxic metals, for which most of the previously discussed methods do not apply, can be analyzed by sophisticated 48 Toxicology spectroscopic techniques, including atomic absorption, plasma emission, neutron activation, and x-ray fluorescence. Understand industrial toxicants like lead, insecticides, rodenticides, cyanide& hydrocarbons with their toxicological laboratory investigations. Describe medical poisoning caused by acetaminophen, salicylates & barbiturates with their toxicological laboratory investigations. Explain the environmental toxins like carbon monoxide, & food born toxins with their toxicological laboratory investigations. Understand the common drugs of abuse like alcohol, nicotine, & opioids with their toxicological laboratory investigation. Introduction The rapid industrialization and successful green revolution have introduced a large variety of chemicals into our environment. The species and varieties of environmental chemicals are as many as we can visualize.