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This disruption produces a greatly amplified message cheap amaryl 4mg without prescription, ultimately disrupting communication channels buy 2 mg amaryl. Most drugs of abuse directly or indirectly target the brain’s reward system by flooding the circuit with dopamine generic 4mg amaryl visa. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter present in regions of the brain that regulate movement purchase 2mg amaryl mastercard, emotion, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. Overstimulating the system with drugs, however, produces euphoric effects, which strongly reinforce the behavior of drug use—teaching the user to repeat it. When some drugs of abuse are taken, they can release 2 to 10 times Our brains are wired to ensure that we will repeat life-sustaining activ- the amount of dopamine that natural rewards such as eating and sex 15 ities by associating those activities with pleasure or reward. In some cases, this occurs almost immediately (as when drugs this reward circuit is activated, the brain notes that something impor- are smoked or injected), and the effects can last much longer than tant is happening that needs to be remembered, and teaches us to do it those produced by natural rewards. Because drugs of abuse pleasure circuit dwarf those produced by naturally rewarding behav- 16,17 stimulate the same circuit, we learn to abuse drugs in the same way. The effect of such a powerful reward strongly motivates peo- ple to take drugs again and again. When cocaine is taken, dopamine increases are exaggerated, and communication is altered. As a result, dopamine’s For the brain, the difference between normal rewards and impact on the reward circuit of the brain of someone who drug rewards can be described as the difference between abuses drugs can become abnormally low, and that per- someone whispering into your ear and someone shouting son’s ability to experience any pleasure is reduced. Just as we turn down the volume on a This is why a person who abuses drugs eventually feels flat, radio that is too loud, the brain adjusts to the overwhelm- lifeless, and depressed, and is unable to enjoy things that were previously pleasurable. Also, the person will often need to take larger amounts of the drug to produce the familiar dopamine high—an effect known as tolerance. We know that the same sort of mechanisms involved in the development of tolerance can eventually lead to profound Healthy Control Drug Abuser changes in neurons and brain circuits, with the potential to severely compromise the long-term health of the brain. For 20 example, glutamate is another neurotransmitter that influences the W hat other brain changes reward circuit and the ability to learn. Chronic exposure to drugs of abuse disrupts the way critical brain Similarly, long-term drug abuse can trigger adaptations in habit or structures interact to control and inhibit behaviors related to drug use. Conditioning is one example of this Just as continued abuse may lead to tolerance or the need for higher type of learning, in which cues in a person’s daily routine or environ- drug dosages to produce an effect, it may also lead to addiction, which ment become associated with the drug experience and can trigger can drive a user to seek out and take drugs compulsively. Drug addic- uncontrollable cravings whenever the person is exposed to these cues, tion erodes a person’s self-control and ability to make sound deci- even if the drug itself is not available. This learned “reflex” is extreme- sions, while producing intense impulses to take drugs. Imaging scans, chest X-rays, and blood tests show the damaging effects of long-term drug Pabuse throughout the body. For example, research has shown that tobacco smoke causes cancer of the mouth, throat, larynx, blood, 19 lungs, stomach, pancreas, kidney, bladder, and cervix. In addition, some drugs of abuse, such as inhalants, are toxic to nerve cells and may damage or destroy them either in the brain or the peripheral nervous system. Three of the Injection drug use is also a major factor in the spread of hepatitis more devastating and troubling consequences of addiction are: C, a serious, potentially fatal liver disease. Injection drug use is not z Negative effects of prenatal drug exposure on infants the only way that drug abuse contributes to the spread of infectious and children diseases. It is also likely that some drug- hepatitis B and C, and other sexually transmitted diseases. According to the Surgeon General’s 2006 Report, The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke, involuntary exposure to secondhand smoke increases the risks of heart disease and lung cancer in people who have never 20 smoked by 25–30 percent and 20–30 percent, respectively. Tobacco use is responsible for an estimated 23 5 million deaths worldwide each year. Tobacco smoke increases a user’s risk Throat of cancer, emphysema, bronchial disorders, and cardiovascu- Larynx (voice box) Mouth Esophagus lar disease. Tobacco use killed approximately 100 mil- Lung Blood (leukemia) lion people during the 20th century, and, if current smoking Stomach Kidney Pancreas trends continue, the cumulative death toll for this century has Bladder Cervix 24 been projected to reach 1 billion. However, misuse or abuse of these drugs (that is, taking impairs short-term memory and learning, the ability to focus attention, them other than exactly as instructed by a doctor and for the purposes and coordination. It also increases heart rate, can harm the lungs, prescribed) can lead to addiction and even, in some cases, death. Unfortunately, there is a common misperception that because medications are prescribed by physicians, they are safe even when used illegally or by another person than they were prescribed for.
The time seems to be ripe for this paper summing up the achievements and the remaining challenges of radiological protection in medicine generic 2 mg amaryl with amex, the main purpose being to pursue a future strategy for dealing with these issues purchase amaryl 1 mg. The paper is organized under the old Roman motto veni amaryl 1 mg with mastercard, vidi order amaryl 4 mg with mastercard, vici in three parts, namely: veni — coming from a successful history; vidi — examining new challenges; and vici — successfully moving towards an international regime for radiation safety in medicine. It is noted, however, that his opinions in this paper do not necessarily reflect those of these bodies. An international radiological protection regime would eventually evolve under the aegis of several prestigious international organizations, becoming a network of science, paradigm and regulatory standards. What follows is a summary account of this successful history, with a focus on protection in medicine, particularly of patients. The early stages At the beginning of the twentieth century, the knowledge of radiation and its effects was limited and the main concern was protecting the staff practising the medical use of the sole radiations being employed at that early time, namely X rays and radium emissions. Those early recommendations state that: “the dangers of over-exposure to X rays and radium can be avoided by the provision of adequate protection and suitable working conditions. It is the duty of those in charge of X ray and radium departments to ensure such conditions for their personnel” (para. That early recommendation states that “screening stands and couches should provide adequate arrangements for protecting the operator against scattered radiation from the patient” (para. The early advice included some curious counsel on ergonomics, such as that X ray departments should not be situated below groundfloor level and that all rooms (including dark rooms) should be provided with windows affording good natural lighting and ready facilities for admitting sunshine and fresh air whenever possible, and with adequate exhaust ventilation capable of renewing the air of the room not less than 10 times an hour, and with air inlets and outlets arranged to afford cross-wise ventilation of the room, and, surprisingly, they should preferably be decorated in light colours (paras 3–6 of Ref. The Commission recognizes “that in medical procedures, exposure of the patient to primary radiation is generally limited to parts of the body, but the whole body is exposed to some extent to stray radiation. Accordingly, it recommended that “the medical profession exercise great care in the use of ionizing radiation in order that the gonad dose received by individuals before the end of their reproductive periods be kept at the minimum value consistent with medical requirements”. Moreover, concerning the exposure of patients for medical reasons, the Commission believed that “it would not be possible to make specific recommendations on dose limitation that would be appropriate for all examinations on individual patients”. The Commission also emphasized that the term ‘medical exposure’ referred “to the exposure of patients in the course of medical procedures and not to the exposure of the personnel conducting or incidentally associated with such procedures” (para. On the other hand, already at that time, the Commission started to show growing concern for the exposure of patients. It emphasized “the need for limiting the doses from radiological procedures to the minimum amount consistent with the medical benefit to the patient” (para. The Commission noted that medical exposures constituted already at that time and for the foreseeable future “the main source of population exposure”. Since it was considered likely that in most countries the number of persons medically exposed would increase, owing to the development of new procedures as well as to improved conditions for medical care, the Commission judged “increasingly important that these technological improvements should be matched by appropriate consideration of the radiation protection of the patient” (para. The Commission also re-emphasized that “careful attention to techniques would, in many cases, result in a considerable reduction of the dose due to medical procedures, without impairment of their value”. To achieve this reduction, the Commission pointed out “the value of adequate training in radiological protection for all persons who administer radiation exposures to patients” (para. These recommendations provide primary general recommendations on medical uses of radiation. For diagnostics, the recommendations covered X ray diagnostic installations, fluoroscopy, radiography, photofluorography, dental radiography and diagnostic uses of radioactive substances. For therapy, it covered beam therapy, conventional X ray therapy, superficial X ray therapy, ‘megavolt’ X ray and particle beam therapy, sealed source beam therapy, non-collimated sealed source therapy, and therapy with unsealed sources. It also generally addressed, perhaps for the first time, the issue of protection of patients. The report collated information necessary “for an adequate understanding of the principles and practice of protection of the patient in the widest sense”. It was recognized that the achievement of this purpose “was not within the scope of a single discipline, but requires a multidisciplinary effort by all who instigate X ray investigations, by those in any way concerned with the use of X ray diagnostic equipment and techniques, and by those responsible for the relevant educational programmes”. They re-emphasized protection against medical exposures, which were redefined as “the intentional exposure of patients for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, and to the exposures resulting from the artificial replacement of body organs or functions (e. It is equally important that this assessment be made against a background of adequate knowledge of the physical properties and the biological effects of ionizing radiation.
The Expert Panel endorsed the approach of the project and content of the outcomes framework generic 2 mg amaryl. The fnal report and outcomes framework were presented to the European Commission in January 008 buy amaryl 2 mg without a prescription. This process of discussion and agreement was at the heart of the Tuning (medicine) project buy cheap amaryl 4mg on-line. For example discount amaryl 1 mg with mastercard, “Ability to provide evidence to a court of law“ was rated very low by respondents as a core outcome and so was removed as a Level outcome. The original draft included the following Level outcomes: • Ability to design research experiments • Ability to carry out practical laboratory research procedures • Ability to analyse and disseminate experimental results These were rated very low by respondents in terms of importance for all graduates as core outcomes of the primary medical degree. The conclusion was that under the Level 1 outcome ‘Ability to apply scientifc principles, method and knowledge to medical practice and research’, no specifc Level outcomes should be included. Similarly, “Research skills”, with no further specifcation, is included as an outcome under Medical professionalism. This leaves it open to individual countries, schools or students to decide how to prioritise practical research experience, in keeping with their profle, educational philosophy or career intentions. Individual schools can also select additional learning outcomes in order to develop or preserve a distinct educational profle – for example, a specifc emphasis on research-related experience and skills - without compromising the essential competence of their graduates and their ftness to care for patients. The structure of the outcomes framework has been chosen to be useful to those involved in planning and designing new undergraduate medical degree programmes. The Level 1 outcomes describe domains of teaching, learning and assessment that lend themselves to becoming “curriculum themes”, with defned academic leadership and dedicated resources. The Level outcomes can help to defne the content of such themes in terms of teaching, learning and assessment. The Professionalism outcomes are relevant when addressing the personal and professional development and ftness to practise of medical students. In future work we aim to document best practice in learning, teaching and assessing these outcomes. Meantime useful information on outcome-based assessment can be accessed through the Scottish Doctor website (http://www. Mobility It seems likely that schools which share a common set of graduating learning outcomes will fnd it much more straightforward to exchange students and staf, particularly in the later parts of the curriculum. Similarly, assurance that graduates have achieved the necessary learning outcomes is likely to facilitate mobility of doctors in Europe and provide reassurance to employers and patients. Quality enhancement and quality assurance Consideration of a medical school’s graduating outcomes in relation to an agreed framework should be an integral part of quality assurance and accreditation, sitting alongside evaluation of education process and infrastructure. Recently developed methodologies permit systematic mapping of one outcomes framework against another, so that a school’s learning outcomes could simply be cross-referenced against the European framework (Ellaway, R et al, 007). Although it is likely that national systems of quality assurance and accreditation will continue to predominate in Europe, the Tuning outcomes can support a developing European dimension in medical education as part of a harmonisation process. European Ministers of Education (1999) Joint declaration of the European Ministers of Education convened in Bologna on the 19th of June 1999 [The Bologna Declaration]. Joint Quality Initiative informal group ( 004) Shared ‘Dublin’ descriptors for Short Cycle, First Cycle, Second Cycle & Third Cycle Awards. Ensuring global standards for medical graduates: a pilot study of international standard-setting. Association of American Medical Colleges (1998) Learning objectives for medical student education: Guidelines for medical schools. Medical Teacher, 007; 9:636-641 3 Appendix A: Knowledge Outcomes Although not formally part of Tuning methodology, the web-base questionnaire survey also sought opinion about important areas of knowledge for medical graduates. In general, the highest scores and rankings related to knowledge of traditional scientifc disciplines which underpin medical practice, such as physiology, anatomy, biochemistry, and immunology, together with clinical sciences such as pathology, microbiology and clinical pharmacology. The lowest ranking related to knowledge of “diferent types of complementary / alternative medicine and their use in patient care”. Graduates from medical degree programmes in Europe should be able to demonstrate knowledge of: Basic Sciences Normal function (physiology) Normal structure (anatomy) Normal body metabolism and hormonal function (biochemistry) Normal immune function (immunology) Normal cell biology Normal molecular biology Normal human development (embryology) Behavioural and social sciences Psychology Human development (child/adolescent/adult) Sociology Clinical Sciences Abnormal structure and mechanisms of disease (pathology) Infection (microbiology) Immunity and immunological disease Genetics and inherited disease 4 Drugs and prescribing Use of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance Principles of prescribing Drug side efects Drug interactions Use of blood transfusion and blood products Drug action and pharmacokinetics Individual drugs Diferent types of complementary / alternative medicine and their use in patient care Public Health Disease prevention Lifestyle, diet and nutrition Health promotion Screening for disease and disease surveillance Disability Gender issues relevant to health care Epidemiology Cultural and ethnic infuences on health care Resource allocation and health economics Global health and inequality Ethical and legal principles in medical practice Rights of patients Rights of disabled people Responsibilities in relation to colleagues Role of the doctor in health care systems Laws relevant to medicine Systems of professional regulation Principles of clinical audit Systems for health care delivery 5 Appendix B: Clinical Attachments and Experiential Learning Although not formally part of Tuning methodology, the web-base questionnaire survey also sought opinion about which areas of clinical medical practice were most important to be included as part of the core undergraduate medical school programme. In general, the highest rankings related to acute medical and surgical care settings, with community and primary care also ranking highly. The lowest rankings related to areas of specialised surgical and medical practice.