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At induction of anaesthesia buy generic triamterene 75mg on-line, cricoid pressure pro- Difficult intubation vides a physical barrier to regurgitation discount triamterene 75mg. As the Occasionally order triamterene 75 mg mastercard, intubation of the trachea is made cricoid cartilage is the only complete ring of carti- difficult because of an inability to visualize the lage in the larynx triamterene 75 mg, pressure on it, anteroposteriorly, larynx. This may have been predicted at the forces the whole ring posteriorly, compressing the preoperative assessment or may be unexpected. A oesophagus against the body of the sixth cervical variety of techniques have been described to help vertebra, thereby preventing regurgitation. An as- solve this problem and include the following: sistant, using the thumb and index finger, applies •M anipulation of the thyroid cartilage by back- pressure whilst the other hand is behind the pa- wards and upwards pressure by an assistant to try tient’s neck to stabilize it (Fig. Pressure is and bring the larynx or its posterior aspect into applied as the patient loses consciousness and view. It long, is inserted blindly into the trachea, over should be maintained even if the patient starts to which the tracheal tube is ‘railroaded’ into place. If trachea via the mouth or nose, and is used as a vomiting does occur, the patient should be turned guide over which a tube can be passed into the tra- onto his or her side to minimize aspiration. Consciousness is lost rapidly as sort to one of the emergency techniques described the concentration of the drug in the brain rises below. The drug is then redistributed to other tissues and the plasma concentration falls; this is followed by a fall in brain concentration and Emergency airway techniques the patient recovers consciousness. Despite a short These must only be used when all other techniques duration of action, complete elimination, usually have failed to maintain oxygenation. Consequently, brane is identified and punctured using a large bore most drugs are not given repeatedly to maintain cannula (12–14 gauge) attached to a syringe. Currently, the only exception to this ration of air confirms that the tip of the cannula is propofol (see below). The cannula is then angled the dose required to induce anaesthesia will be to about 45° caudally and advanced off the needle dramatically reduced in those patients who into the trachea (Fig. A high-flow oxygen sup- are elderly, frail, have compromise of their ply is then attached to the cannula and insufflated cardiovascular system or are hypovolaemic. Breathing an inhalational anaesthetic in oxygen or • Surgical cricothyroidotomy This involves making in a mixture of oxygen and nitrous oxide can be an incision through the cricothyroid membrane to used to induce anaesthesia. However, is assessed (and overdose avoided) using clinical once a tube has been inserted the patient can be signs or ‘stages of anaesthesia’; the original ventilated, ensuring oxygenation, elimination of description was based on using ether, but the main carbon dioxide and suction of the airway to re- features can still be seen using modern drugs. Currently, sevoflurane is the most popular anaesthetic used for Drugs used during general this technique. As well as the above, the anaesthetic will have ef- The stages of anaesthesia fects on all of the other body systems, which will need appropriate monitoring. The pupils Maintenance of anaesthesia will be normal in size and reactive, muscle tone is normal and breathing uses intercostal mus- This can be achieved either by using one of a vari- cles and the diaphragm. Second stage In this period there may be breath-holding, Inhalational anaesthesia struggling and coughing. The pupils will be di- Inhalational anaesthetics are a group of halogena- lated and there is loss of the eyelash reflex. There is inspired concentration of all of these compounds reduction in respiratory activity, with progres- is expressed as the percentage by volume. The pupils There are two concepts that will help in under- start by being slightly constricted and gradually standing the use of inhalational anaesthetics: dilate. This is the concentration required to prevent 29 Chapter 2 Anaesthesia 30 Anaesthesia Chapter 2 31 Chapter 2 Anaesthesia Table 2. It is the partial pressure in the brain that is responsible for the anaesthetic ef- Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a colourless, sweet-smelling, fect and this follows closely the partial pressure in non-irritant gas with moderate analgesic proper- the alveoli. As pressure can be changed determines the rate of the maximum safe concentration that can be ad- change in brain partial pressure, and hence speed ministered without the risk of hypoxia is approxi- of induction, change in depth of, and recovery mately 70%, unconsciousness or anaesthesia from anaesthesia. Con- One of the main determinants of alveolar partial sequently, it is usually given in conjunction with pressure is how soluble the inhalational anaesthe- one of the other vapours.
However buy triamterene 75 mg mastercard, with the widespread availability of radioimaging techniques order triamterene 75mg with visa, fibrinolytic agents purchase 75mg triamterene free shipping, safe & effective surgical procedures ( open or thoracoscopy ) the recent data is leading to more focused management guidelines though optimal management is still controversial (22) buy generic triamterene 75 mg on line. It could be localised or free collection of purulent material in pleural space as a result of combination of inoculation of bacteria & culture medium of pleural fluid. Stage 2 or Fibrinopurulent or Transitional phase ( 3 to 21 days ): There is deposition of fibrin in the pleural space leading to septations & formation of loculations. The presence of septations (fibrinous strands 17 in pleural fluid )doesn’t necessarily mean fluid doesn’t flow freely, although separate loculations will not communicate with each other. These solid fibrous or leather like peels may prevent lung re- expansion ( “trapped lung” ), impair lung function & create a persistent pleural space with potential for infection. It achieves debridement of fibrinous pyogenic material, breakdown of loculations, and drainage of pus from the pleural cavity under direct vision. Decortication involves an open posterolateral thoracotomy and excision of the thick fibrous pleural rind with evacuation of pyogenic material. It is a longer and more complicated procedure leaving a larger linear scar along the rib line. The reported rate of empyema thoracis complicating community acquired pneumonia is said to be 27% in children(21). The prevalence of small parapneumonic effusions is difficult to estimate (and often undetected )& they are unlikely to be reported in case series. Since Staph aureus is the most common organism responsible in our country improving hygienic conditions especially during hot & humid conditions of the year ie April to August will bring down in general incidence & severity of staph infections. Improvement in dental/oral hygiene as it is a welknown predisposing factor for development of aspiration pneumonia. Pediatric surgeon or General surgeon familiar with basic thoracic surgery along with paediatrician or respiratory physician should manage these cases. They should be monitored closely & carefully by frequent clinical assessment & room air saturation by pulse oximeter whenever child is in resp. Diagnostic imaging, microbiology, pleural fluid analysis should be carried out promptly. Conservative management to be started swiftly & supported by antipyretics, analgesia, oxygen , if necessary. Antibiotics : Intravenous antibiotics for 10 to 14 days for community acquired pneumonia covering Gram positive cocci & anaerobes to be started empirically pending preferably c & s report. Broad spectrum coverage should be started for hospital acquired pneumonia as well as empyema following surgery, trauma & aspiration. Routine measurement of the platelet count and clotting studies are only recommended in patients with known risk factors. Where possible, any coagulopathy or platelet defect should be corrected before chest drain insertion. If general anaesthesia is not being used, intravenous sedation should only be given by those trained in the use of conscious sedation, airway management and resuscitation of children, using full monitoring equipment. Large bore surgical drains should be inserted at the optimum site suggested by ultrasound, but preferentially placed in the mid axillary line through the ‘‘safety triangle’’. Trocar usage preferably should be avoided & should it be needed ,due to circumstances, great care is mandatory to have a guard or control on it while inserting. Chest tube should be secured well with non absorbable suture & appropriate dressing. All chest tubes should be connected to a unidirectional flow drainage system (such as an underwater seal bottle) which must be kept below the level of the patient’s chest at all times. A clamped drain should be immediately unclamped and medical advice sought if a patient complains of breathlessness or chest pain. Patients with chest drains should be managed on wards by staff trained in chest drain management. A drain that cannot be unblocked should be removed and replaced by new catheter if significant pleural fluid remains. Surgical management : Proper planning & ensuring availability of all the trained & experienced personnel ie.
The nuclei are round and the cytoplasm may contain a few lipid droplets generic triamterene 75mg fast delivery, which will appear as lipid vacuoles cheap triamterene 75 mg line. The cytoplasm appears frothy or spongy because of the many lipid droplets that have been removed during processing of the tissue order triamterene 75 mg mastercard. The zona reticularis consists of a branching and anastomosing network of polyhedral cells smaller than those of the zona fasciculata buy triamterene 75mg with amex. The medulla is composed of cells that are also arranged in the typical fashion of endocrine glands, cords and clumps of cells surrounded by fenestrated medullary sinusoids. The medullary cells do not have lipid vacuoles, but if fixation is not prompt autodigestion vacuoles may appear in the cytoplasm. The tissue surrounding the central vein may not be medullary but instead may be in-growths of cortical tissue. The chromaffin reaction following bichromate fixation results in differential staining of epinephrine and norepinephrine cells, the latter are stained more darkly brown. Parafollicular cells are found interspersed within the follicular epithelium and in clusters between follicles. Cells in these glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which acts to increase calcium resorption from bone and in the renal tubules. Large intensely eosinophilic oxyphil cells may be found interspersed or in nests among the chief cells. Review the typical endocrine arrangement of anastomosing cords of cells surrounded by sinusoidal capillaries. The cells in the Islets of Langerhans are not arranged into acini (as in the exocrine pancreas) but in irregular cords and clumps surrounded by a rich capillary plexus. The alpha cells secrete glucagon, which raises blood sugar, and the beta cells secrete insulin, which lowers it. For a more detailed description of the exocrine pancreas see part two of the gastrointestinal system lab on page 82. Be certain that you understand the functional significance of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system as discussed in lecture. Understand and identify the stages in spermatogenesis and the cells that play essential roles in this process. The male reproductive system consists of the testes, the excretory ducts and associated glands, the penis, and the scrotum. The testes contain many seminiferous tubules, which are lined by a germinal epithelium consisting of germinal elements (spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and spermatids) and Sertoli cells. Lying between the seminiferous tubules are the interstitial cells of Leydig, which produce the male sex hormones (androgens). When sperm leave the seminiferous tubules they pass through the following series of ducts: Ducts Characteristics 1. The male sex accessory glands are the paired seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the paired bulbourethral glands. The duct of each seminal vesicle unites with the ampulla of a ductus deferens to form a common ejaculatory duct. The prostate gland surrounds the ejaculatory duct and the prostatic urethra, and secretes into the latter. The mediastinum (not visible on this slide) is the mass of acidophilic connective tissue at one 67 pole through which the major vessels enter and leave the testis. At higher magnification identify the germinal elements (spermatogonia, spermatocytes and spermatids) and Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules. Only the Sertoli cells and spermatogonia (usually with interphase nuclei) rest on the basement membrane. The larger primary spermatocytes lie on the luminal side of the Sertoli cells and are frequently in some stage of the prolonged prophase of the first meiotic division.