By X. Giacomo. American Military University.
Proteolysis generates a fragment that leads to toxicity through several pathways 50mg imuran with amex. Nuclear importation may lead to altered gene transcription with a detri- mental effect on cell survival generic imuran 50mg overnight delivery. Inclu- sions also form in the nucleus but may not be a major cause of cell death discount 50 mg imuran mastercard. Huntingtin fragments may interfere with mitochondrial en- ergy metabolism buy imuran 50mg without a prescription, either directly, or more likely indirectly, perhaps by altered gene transcription. Micro- aggregation of the fragment may lead to caspase activation and the consequent initiation of cell death pathways. Fragments maybe trans- ported into neurites, interfering with cytoskeletal function. Toxicity may also be mediated by the full- length huntingtin protein with the expanded repeat. As discussed in the text, many of the steps remain speculative. THERAPY Recent biochemical, cell, and animal studies are beginning to suggest approaches for development of rational therapeu- tics (Fig. As described earlier, current therapeutics for HD are limited to symptomatic treatments, so any inter- vention that can stop or slow disease progression would be a major advance. The first generation of agents designed to slow the pro- gression or delay the onset of HD has emerged from neuro- toxicologic models of HD. Coenzyme Q is a mitochondrial cofactor, and remacemide is a glutamate-receptor antagonist, and both drugs have efficacy in neurotoxicologic mouse models. The CARE-HD Study is the first multicenter HD drug trial and involves 340 patients treated for 30 months under the sponsorship of the Huntington Study Group. Neurotoxico- logic models have also led to smaller trials of other agents, including vitamin E, idebenone, and lamotrigine. None of these agents has demonstrated any clear efficacy (101–105). Another approach to HD therapeutics involves trans- plantation either of fetal striatal cells or of cells secreting growth factors. These methods have met with at best limited success so far, but they may have promise for the future. Stem cells, if such cells can be differentiated into striatal FIGURE 125. Chapter 125: Huntington Disease 1827 A screen for therapeutic agents that may alter polyglu- published material (10,111,112), with permission from the tamine aggregation is currently in progress using the filter publishers. Early results indicate that Congo red and related dyes that intercalate into sheets (106) and members of the heat shock pro- DISCLAIMER tein–chaperone family (16) can reduce aggregation. The effect of these agents in animal or cell models of HD is Dr. Ross has received research support from Astra-Zeneca unknown, and even if effective, it is unclear whether these and serves as a consultant for Amgen. New compounds may emerge based on those already shown to be effective in vitro, or entirely new classes of REFERENCES effective agents may be discovered with further screening. Mouse models are also in use to screen for therapeutic 2. Based on work in cells, the role of caspase more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. New York: Springer-Verlag, of the effect on disease progression observed in these studies 1981. Glutamine repeats and neurodegenera- by altering the environment in which the mice are raised tion. It is possible that a combination of several of these 10. Reviews in molecular medicine: Huntington disease and the related disorder, denta- agents may have enhanced effectiveness. Medicine (Baltimore) of the agents tested so far have been targeted at relatively 1997;76:305–338. Am pathogenesis of HD advances, the development of therapeu- J Hum Genet 1996;59:1–6.
Early sexual abuse and clinical depression in adult life imuran 50 mg with visa. Predicting depression in community: the use of research diagnostic criteria in an epide- women: the role of past and present vulnerability purchase 50mg imuran otc. Variability in rates of of women with a history of childhood abuse: unhealed wounds best imuran 50 mg. J MedGenet nomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical 1999;36(8):585–594 order 50 mg imuran visa. Childhood adversity the circadian sleep-wake cycle as an antidepressant. Social zeitgebers and biological New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. A unified approach to understanding the etiology of 33. Dietary polyunsaturated fats and depres- In: Robins L, Regier D, eds. New York: Free sion: when cholesterol does not satisfy. This evidence for the disorder compared to relatives of control subjects? What other phenomena (possibly genetically related) are and candidate gene studies. Both the twin and family studies also found more frequently among relatives of an affected suggest that unipolar and bipolar disorders share some frac- individual? Alternatively, what other disorders (or clini- tion of genetic susceptibility. Data from the twin and family cal characteristics) may share a common genetic vulner- studies can be used for genetic counseling, and this will be ability with the phenomenon in question? Efforts to find susceptibility genes through linkage stud- Family studies are executed as follows. A proband that ies have yielded several confirmed regions of the genome (most likely) has the phenomenon in question is examined where such genes will be found. These linkage studies will be to determine its presence. Simultaneously, rela- Candidate gene approaches to BP and RUP disorders tives of unaffected probands are examined in the same fash- will be reviewed, with some suggestions for improving ion for its presence. A few of the most promising candidate genes will nation of control families cannot be overestimated, as the be noted. Thus, it Imprinting, triplet repeat expansion, and mitochondrial in- is rarely acceptable to rely on data collected by others to heritance are reviewed briefly as examples of nonmendelian estimate risk for a control population. The risk of a particu- mechanisms possibly involved in these disorders. If the disorder in for future progress will be discussed. Often, the risk for a certain class of relatives of affected probands is expressed as a ratio. Family Studies Shown below is an example for siblings: Family studies can answer three critical questions concern- Sibling relative risk ing the inheritance of a human phenomenon: [Risk for siblings of affected probands] 1. Is the phenomenon found more frequently among the biological relatives of an affected individual compared /[Risk for siblings of control probands] to biological relatives of unaffected persons? Alterna- A family study is not the same as a 'family history' study, in which the relatives are not directly examined, but information from the proband or other persons is used to Wade Berrettini: University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Center establish the affections status of relatives.
Chua S cheap 50 mg imuran mastercard, Cheung C order imuran 50 mg amex, Cheung V order 50mg imuran with amex, Tsang J discount imuran 50 mg visa, Chen E, Wong J, Cheung J, Yip L, Suckling J, McAlonan G. Cerebral grey, white matter and csf in never-medicated, first episode- schizophrenia. Regulation and dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 1992; 21:833-858. A randomized add-on trial of an N-methyl- D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant bipolar depression. Rapid resolution of suicidal ideation after a single infusion of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatyry 2010; 71:1605-16011. Glucose metabolism in the amygdala in depression: relationship to diagnostic subtype and plasma cortisol levels. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour 2002; 71:431-447. Ettinger U, Picchioni M, Landau S, Matsumoto K, van Haren N, Marshall N, Hall M, Schulze K, Toulopoulou T, Davies N, Ribchester T, McGuire P, Murray R. Magnetic resonance imaging of the thalamus and adhesio interthalamica in twins with schizophrenia. Fusar-Poli P, Smieskova R, Serafini G, Politi P, Borgwardt S. Neuroanatomical markers of genetic liability to psychosis and first episode psychosis: a voxelwise meta-analytical comparison. World J Biol Psychiatry 2012, Jan 27 [Epub ahead of print] Gould E, McEwen B, Tanapat P, Galea L, Fuchs E. Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult tress shrew is regulated by psychosocial stress and NMDA receptor activation. Huerta I, McCullumsmith R, Haroutunian V, Gimenez-Amaya J, Meador-Woodruff J. Expression of excitatory amino acid transporter interacting protein in the thalamus in schizophrenia. Altered fimbria-fornix white matter integrity in anorexia nervosa predicts harm avoidance. The CRF1 receptor, a novel target for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and stress-related disorders. Thalamocortical connectivity during resting state in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2013 July 27 [Epub ahead of print]. Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobes of monkeys. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1939; 42:979-1000. Structural neuroimaging studies in major depressive disorder. Extensive white matter abnormalities in patients with first-episode schizophrenia: A diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) study. Neuropsychiatric assessment of patients with hyperkinetic and hypokinetic movement disorders. Larger amygdala but no change in hippocampal volume in 10 year old children exposed to maternal depressive symptomatology since birth. Proceedings National Academy of Science USA 2011 Aug 15.
Instances of acute FIGURE 7-19 renal failure associated with intravascular coagulation related to thrombotic thrombocytopenic Causes of acute renal failure cheap imuran 50mg with amex. Acute renal purpura (TTP) or hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) have been reported (vide infra) discount 50mg imuran. Rare failure is related to complications of AIDS safe 50mg imuran, its causes of acute renal failure include disseminated microsporidian infection or histoplasmosis treatment buy 50mg imuran mastercard, or the use of diagnostic agents in [151,152]. A clinical presentation of acute renal failure also can be seen in patients with acute about 20% of patients [129,130]. Acute tubu- immunocomplex postinfectious glomerulonephritis, crescentic glomerulonephritis, or fulminant lar necrosis occurs with a prevalence of 8% to HIV-associated glomerulosclerosis. An example of nonoliguric acute tubular 7 7 necrosis associated with administration of large doses of intravenous 6 6 acyclovir is illustrated, which was readily reversible on decreasing 5 5 the dose of acyclovir from 2. Patients infected with 4 4 HIV can exhibit a broad spectrum of conditions that may affect the 3 3 kidneys. Renal biopsy is useful for diagnostic and prognostic purpos- 2 2 es when the cause of acute renal failure is not clinically evident. In a 1 1 recent study of 60 patients with acute renal failure, a percutaneous 0 0 renal biopsy yielded a pathologic diagnosis in 13% that was not 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 expected clinically [154]. Day Renal Disease in Patients Infected with Hepatitis and Human Immunodeficiency Virus 7. Rao and Friedm an [155] com pared the course of 146 ACUTE RENAL FAILURE patients with severe acute renal failure (serum creatinine >6 m g/dL) infected with H IV with a group of 306 contem poraneous persons not infected with H IV but with equally severe acute renal failure. The patients infected with H IV were younger than those in the HIV Non-HIV group not infected (m ean age 38. O ver 80% of patients in each group Conservative 20 (14%) 42 (14%) recovered renal function when conservative therapy alone was sufficient. W hen dialysis Recovered 85% 83% NS intervention was needed, it was not initiated m ore often in the group with H IV than in the Needing dialysis 126 264 control group (42% and 24% , respectively; P<0. In those patients in whom dialysis Not initiated 42% 22% 0. O verall, the m ortality in Initiated 73 207 patients with severe acute renal failure was not significantly different in those with H IV Recovered 56% 47% NS infection from those in the group not infected with H IV (im m ediate m ortality, 60% and 56% , respectively; m ortality at 3 m onths, 71% and 60% , respectively). FIGURE 7-22 NEPHROPATHIES Nephropathies associated with HIV. The literature refers to the glomerulosclerosis associated ASSOCIATED W ITH with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as HIV-associated nephropathy. However, HIV- HUM AN IM M UNODEFICIENCY associated nephropathies may include a spectrum of renal diseases, including HIV-associated VIRUS INFECTION glomerulosclerosis, HIV-associated immune-complex glomerulonephritis (focal or diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis, immunoglobulin A nephropathy) and HIV-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome/thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (HUS/TTP). Diffuse Focal segmental or global glomerulosclerosis mesangial hyperplasia and minimal change disease also may be associated with HIV, particu- larly in children. Therefore, the nomenclature of HIV-associated nephropathies should be Diffuse and global mesangial hyperplasia amended to list the associated qualifying histologic feature [156]. All types of glomeru- Minimal change disease lopathies have been observed in patients with HIV-infection. Their prevalence and severity Others: vary with the population studied. Focal segmental or global glomerulosclerosis is most preva- Immune-complex glomerulopathies lent in black adults. In whites, proliferative and other types of glomerulonephritis predomi- Hemolytic uremic syndrome, thrombotic nate. In children with perinatal acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, glomerulosclerosis, thrombocytopenic purpura diffuse mesangial hyperplasia, and proliferative glomerulonephritis are equally prevalent. Thus, concern existed Glomerulosclerosis that this entity m erely represented the older heroin nephropathy Diff.
Numerous bacteria are scattered on the epithelial cell membranes order 50mg imuran otc. About half of all cases of cystitis are FIGURE 7-9 due to uropathogenic strains of E purchase 50 mg imuran with mastercard. Females Schematic representation of morphology and composition of type P with primary pyelonephritis and no urologic abnormality harbor a and type 1 adhesive structures buy discount imuran 50mg line. Bacterial adhesins are paramount in uropathogenic strain in almost 100% of cases imuran 50mg with mastercard. The most studied is the pap G adhesin, which is located at the tip of the bacterial fimbriae (or pili). This lectin recognizes binding site conformations provided by oligosaccharide sequences present on the mucosal surface. FIGURE 7-11 APPROPRIATE ANTIBIOTICS FOR URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS Appropriate antibiotics for urinary tract infections (UTI). An appropriate antibiotic for treating UTI m ust be bactericidal and Antibiotics General Indications Pregnancy Prophylaxis conform to the following general specifica- tions: 1) its pharmacology must include, in Aminoglycosides + +* - case of oral adm inistration, rapid absorp- Aminopenicillins +† + - tion and attainm ent of peak serum concen- Carboxypenicillins + + - trations; 2) its excretion m ust be predom i- Ureidopenicillins + + - ‡ nantly renal; 3) it m ust achieve high con- Quinolones + - + § centrations in the renal or prostate tissue; Fluoroquinolones + - + 4) it m ust cover the usual spectrum of Cephalosporins First generation +¶ + +‡ enterobacteria with reasonable chance of Second generation + + - being effective on an em pirical basis. Third generation + + - Excluding special considerations for child- Monobactams + + - hood and pregnancy, several classes of Carbapenem + + - antibiotics fulfill these specifications and Cotrimoxazole + - +‡ can be used alone or in com bination. The Fosfomycin trometamole +** - - choice also depends on m arket availability, Nitroturantoin +†† - + cost, patient tolerance, and potential for inducing em ergence of resistant strains. With the exception of amoxicillin plus clavulanic acid, aminopenicillins should not be prescribed as first-line treatment, owing to the frequency of primary resistance to this class of antibiotics. In case of urinary tract infection (UTI), distinguishing between lower and upper tract infection is classical, but the distinction is also beside the point. The real point is to determine whether infection is confined to the bladder mucosa, which is the case in simple cystitis in females, or whether it involves solid organs (ie, prostatitis or pyelonephritis). The dots in this figure symbolize the presence of bacteria and leukocytes (ie, infection) in the relevant organ. Here, infection is confined to the bladder mucosa, which can be severely inflamed and edematous. This could be reflected radiographically by mucosal wrinkling on the cystogram. In some cases inflammation is severe enough to be accompanied by bladder purpura, which induces macroscopic hematuria but is not a particular grave sign. Anatom ically, prostatitis involves Acute prostatitis can be com plicated by Pyelonephritis in fem ales. Essentially, this is the lower urinary tract, but invasion of ascending infection, that is, pyelonephritis. From the perineum the bacteria gain pathogens to the prostatic venous system — access to the bladder, ascending to the renal and, usually, poor penetration by antibi- pelvocalyceal system and thence to the renal otics. Presence of bacteria in the bladder is medulla, from which they spread toward the also sym bolized in this picture, but owing to cortex. It has been shown that “pyelitis” can- free com m unication between bladder urine not be considered a pathologic entity, as renal and prostate tissue, it can be accepted that pelvis infection is invariably associated with pure cystitis does not exist in m ales. Laboratory Tissue invasion is invariably accompanied by an erythrocyte sedimentation rate over 20 mm/h and serum C-reactive protein levels over 2. Blood cultures grow in 30%–50% of cases, which in an immunocompetent host indicates simply bac- teremia, not septicemia. This reflects easy permeability between the urinary and the venous compartments of the kidney. Imaging W hen indicated, ultrasound imaging, tomodensitometry, and scintigraphy provide objective evidence of pyelonephritis. In case of vesicoureteral reflux, urinary tract infection necessarily involves the upper urinary tract. As specified else- where, renal abscess due to enterobacteri- aceae (as opposed to hematogenous renal abscess, often of staphylococcal origin) can be considered a severe form of pyelonephritis with renal tissue liquefaction, ending in a walled-off cavity.